Universe's Forces

Gravitational Force

In 1822, Auguste Louis Cauchy introduced a tensor in fluid mechanics, now known as Cauchy's tensor (see Figure below, left side, A). As previously mentioned, Einstein later incorporated a similar tensor into his Einstein Field Equations (EFE) during the development of general relativity around 1915 (right side, B).

The diagonal components of the EFE tensor (highlighted in green) clearly indicate a pressure force rather than an attractive one. Contrary to common belief, gravitation is not an attractive force but a pressure force exerted on closed volumes, as derived from Einstein’s EFEs. Given the accuracy of the EFEs, gravitation can be interpreted as a standard Hookean force. This concept is fully detailed in Part 1.

Note: The EFEs are fully described in the book’s appendice.

Strong Nuclear Force

The strong nuclear force is traditionally understood as the interaction that confines quarks within nucleons and holds protons and neutrons together in the nucleus.

However, it may not exist as a distinct force per se. Instead, electrons and positrons — considered in their wave-like form — surround the nucleons (protons and neutrons) in a manner analogous to a rubber band. This configuration generates a constraining elastic force, which can be interpreted through Hooke’s law as applied in fluid mechanics. Much like gravitation, this constraining force behaves as an elastic pressure force.

Consequently, what is conventionally referred to as the strong nuclear force may be better described as an emergent elastic interaction.

Electroweak Nuclear Force

The weak nuclear force — also referred to as the electroweak force — is fundamentally electromagnetic in nature, as demonstrated by Abdus Salam, Steven Weinberg, and Sheldon Glashow, recipients of the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics.

This force originates within the atomic nucleus, although its precise mechanism of generation remains unclear. It exhibits a much shorter range than the conventional electromagnetic (EM) force.

The following alternative interpretation is proposed by the Spacetime Model.

According to this model, the electroweak force may in fact be a standard EM force that emerges from within the nucleus. Its apparent attenuation is due to the necessity of passing through surrounding electrons and/or positrons before escaping the nucleus. These peripheral particles act as a Faraday cage, effectively shielding and degrading the EM interaction. This phenomenon explains why the electroweak force behaves as a diminished or filtered form of the electromagnetic force.

Electromagnetic Force

The electromagnetic (EM) force originates from variations in spacetime density within sCells.

The magnetic component can be interpreted as a variant of the Coulomb force. The key distinction lies in the polarization of sCells: electric fields correspond to one-dimensional (1D) polarization, whereas electromagnetic fields involve three-dimensional (3D) polarization. For a detailed explanation, see Part 4.

Unification into Two Forces

See figure below.

According to the Spacetime Model, only two fundamental forces govern physical interactions: the Coulomb force and the Hooke force. These forces cannot be unified, as they act on fundamentally different types of particles.

The Coulomb force applies exclusively to charged particles, whereas the Hooke force affects all particles — charged or neutral — through elastic constraints.